Language & Gender Essay

Language and gender in the classroom Many of the issues reviewed in this chapter have far-reaching implications in classrooms. Classrooms and schools are among society’s primary socializing institutions. In them, children come to understand their social identity relative to each other and relative to the institution. Although schools are certainly not responsible for teaching students their gender-differentiated social roles, they often reinforce the subordinate role of girls and women through curricular choices and classroom organizations that exclude, denigrate, and/or stereotype them. However, as discussed earlier in this chapter, recent theoretical insights suggest that identity is not fixed, that language use is not static, and that it is possible to negotiate social identities through alternative language use. It follows, then, that schools are sites in which inequities (based on gender, race, ethnicity, language background, age, sexuality, etc. can be challenged and potentially transformed by selecting materials that represent identity groups more equally, by reorganizing classroom interaction so that all students have the opportunity to talk and demonstrate achievement, and by encouraging students to critically analyze the ways they use language in their everyday lives. Based on a review of 2 decades of research on gender and classroom interaction, Clarricoates concludes that interaction between teachers and students and among students themselves is â€Å"suffused with gender† (1983, p. 6; cited by Swann, 1993). Studies reviewed by Swann (1993) describ e a range of ways in which gender differentiation is maintained in mainstream English-speaking classrooms, including the following: †¢ ‘ While there are quiet pupils of both sexes, the more outspoken pupils tend to be boys. †¢ Boys also tend to ‘stand out’ more than girls. Michelle Stanworth (1983) notes that in her study teachers initially found some girls ‘hard to place’. Boys also referred to a ‘faceless’ bunch of girls. Boys tend to be generally more assertive than girls. For instance, a US study of whole-class talk (Sadker and Sadker, 1985) found boys were eight times more likely than girls to call out. †¢ Girls and boys tend to sit separately; in group work, pupils usually elect to work in single-sex rather than mixed-sex groups. †¢ When they have the choice, girls and boys often discuss or write about gender-typed topics. †¢ Boys are often openly disparaging towards girls. †¢ In practical subjects, such as science, boys hog the resources. In practical subjects, girls ‘fetch and carry’ for boys, doing much of the cleaning up, and collec ting books and so on. †¢ Boys occupy, and are allowed to occupy, more space, both in class and outside—for example, in play areas. †¢ Teachers often make distinctions between girls and boys – for disciplinary or administrative reasons or to motivate pupils to do things. †¢ Teachers give more attention to boys than to girls. †¢ Topics and materials for discussion are often chosen to maintain boys’ interests. Teachers tend not to perceive disparities between the numbers of contributions from girls and boys. Sadker and Sadker (1985) showed US teachers a video of classroom talk in which boys made three times as many contributions as girls — but teachers believed the girls had talked more. †¢ Teachers accept certain behaviour (such as calling out) from boys but not from girls. †¢ Female teachers may themselves be subject to harrassment from male pupils. †¢ ‘Disaffected’ girls tend to opt out quietly at the back of the class, whereas disaffected boys make trouble. (Swann, 1993, pp. 1-52) A 10-year research project by Sadker and Sadker (1993; including participant observation, audio and video recordings, interviews with students and teachers, and large-scale surveys) in elementary, junior high, and high school, and in university classes in the United States, and the review of research on language and gender in the classroom by Sommers and Lawrence (1992), both support these general findings. It is interesting to note the parallel between research on girls and boys in schools on the one hand, and on minority and majority students in schools on the other. Just as boys and men (generally with no attention to factors like race and ethnicity) seem to be advantaged at the expense of girls and women in mainstream schools in Britain, Australia, and the United States, white middle-class standard English speakers (generally with no attention to gender) seem to be advantaged at the expense of nonwhite middle-class standard English speakers (see Nieto, 1992, for further discussion). However, as Swann (1993) points out, these findings need to be interpreted with some caution. The differences between sexes are always average ones, and boys and girls behave differently in different contexts. In other words, these are tendencies, not absolutes, that have been documented in mainstream English-speaking classes. It should be emphasized that there is considerable variation that can be exploited by teachers in their own classes. As discussed earlier, for the variation in how girls and boys use language to be understood, research needs to begin not with boys and girls as fixed categories that behave or are treated the same in all contexts, but with a particular community of practice, in this case a class or a school. The analysis, then, needs to focus on the activity and on how boys’ and girls’ rights and obligations are constructed within that activity within that community of practice. Once the class and the activities to be analyzed have been identified, the teacher or researcher can begin by asking how girls and boys, women and men, are represented, for example, in the texts selected for use in the class as well as in the work that the students produce. Researchers have found that women, like other minority groups, tend to be excluded, marginalized, or stereotyped within the mainstream curriculum content (see Nieto, 1992; Sadker ;amp; Sadker, 1993; Swann, 1993, for further discussion). Although we are not aware of any studies that have documented short-term and longer-term effects of mainstream curriculum content versus curriculum content that is gender balanced, Swann summarizes the concerns of teachers and researchers about gender imbalances in the curriculum as follows: Teachers and researchers have been concerned about imbalances in children’s reading materials because of their potential immediate and local effects: they may affect the way pupils respond to a particular book and the subject with which it is associated; they may also affect the pupils’ performance on assessment tasks. There is further concern that, in the longer term, such imbalances may help to reinforce gender differences and inequalities: they may influence children’s perceptions of what are appropriate attributes, activities, occupations, and so forth for males and females. Introducing alternative images may redress the balance, and also have a disruptive effect, causing pupils to question accepted views of girls and boys and women and men. (p. 113) Swann (pp. 190-197) provides a variety of checklists that teachers and researchers can use to investigate how girls and boys, women and men, are represented and evaluated in the texts they choose and the activities they organize within their classrooms. When teachers find that their curricular choices are not balanced with respect to gender, for example, that the science text includes few contributions by women, that the literature anthology includes stories primarily by white males about white males, or that the women included in the texts are portrayed only in traditional roles, they can adopt texts that offer images of women and men in less traditional roles. If the goal is to encourage students to question traditional notions, simply providing alternative images in the curriculum content may not be sufficient. Teachers may want to encourage students to talk about traditional and alternative images, perhaps by critically reading and responding to sexist materials, by emphasizing choice in women’s and men’s roles, and by challenging representations of women and men (and other groups) in the students’ own work. We will return to these points later in this chapter. As has been discussed throughout this chapter, it is not only what is talked about, in this case through the curriculum content, that helps shape gender roles; equally or more important is an understanding of how girls and boys, women and men, position themselves and each other through their interactions. With respect to the organization of classroom interaction, research suggests that participation frameworks, or groupings of students and teachers for classroom activities (e. . , as individuals, in pairs, in small groups, or as a teacher-fronted classes), can strongly influence the students’ opportunities to talk and demonstrate achievement (see Erickson, this volume; Saville-Troike, this volume). For example, mainstream U. S. classrooms are generally characterized by the transmission model of teaching and learning (Cummins, 1989) and the initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) participation structure (Holmes, 1978). In these teacher-centered classes, the teacher talks for most of the time as he or she transmits the curriculum content to the student population in a relatively competitive atmosphere, and initiates the students5 participation. The students are encouraged to bid for the opportunity to respond to what Cazden (1988) describes as the â€Å"known-answer55 question, and the teacher then evaluates the students’ responses as right or wrong. It is in this traditional competitive classroom that boys seem to be advantaged (Sadker ;amp;c Sadker, 1993; Tannen, 1992). However, just as women participated more in more collaboratively organized meetings than in traditional hierarchically organized meetings (see earlier discussions of Edelsky, 1981; Goodwin, 1990), some research suggests that girls, as well as students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds, participate more in cooperative learning organizations than in traditional teacher-centered classes (Kramarae ;amp; Treichler, 1990; Tannen, 1992; see also Kessler, 1990, for a general review of benefits of cooperative learning). However, the picture is much more complicated; simply organizing students into smaller groups is not the answer. In fact, some research suggests that mixed-sex groupings can reproduce boys’ dominant role and girls’ supportive role. For example, in a study by Sommers and Lawrence (1992) of mixed-sex peer response groups of college students in writing classes, it was found that males took far more turns than females, produced greater quantities of talk, at times appropriated females’ ideas as their own, and tended to interrupt and/or silence their female counterparts. Females tended to wait, listen, acknowledge, and confirm other students’ contributions. When Sommers and Lawrence compared male and female participation in the peer response groups with their participation in the teacher-fronted participation framework, they found that boys and girls tended to participate more or less equally in the teacher-fronted organization because the teachers could exert more control over how the participation opportunities were distributed. It is important to mention that the teachers in these teacher-fronted classes were Lawrence and Sommers themselves, and that they were aware of and concerned about equal participation opportunities for males and females in their classes. In a study by Rennie and Parker (1987, cited by Swann, 1993) of primary school students in science classes in Australia, it was also found that boys tended to talk more in mixed-sex groupings, and girls tended to watch and listen. However, in single-sex groups, and in classes in which the teachers had participated in a â€Å"gender awareness† course, girls tended to participate more actively. Both these examples suggest that when teachers are aware of gender-differentiated language use, they can change the dynamics in their classes so that girls and women are not subordinated, at least in the short run. Swann (1993) provides some useful suggestions for teachers and researchers who are interested in systematically observing and analyzing the dynamics within their own classes to understand how girls and boys are positioned relative to each other (Chap. 8), as well as suggestions for changing discriminatory practices (Chap. 9). The research discussed thus far has been concerned with genderdifferentiated language use in mainstream, white, standard Englishspeaking contexts in the United States, Britain, and Australia. Even in these relatively homogeneous contexts, it is evident that factors other than gender (e. g. participation framework and activity type) may affect the way people behave. Although there has been relatively little detailed research to date on the ways in which boys and girls from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds interact in the classroom, an area of particular concern to ESL and bilingual teachers, it is likely that factors such as culture, race, ethnic ity, and socioeconomic status interact with gender to shape students’ participation opportunities. For example, Swann (1993) discusses a series of analyses of gender and ethnic imbalances in classroom discussions in four nursery and primary schools in Ealing, England. Swann points out that in the original analysis, Claire and Redpath (1989) found that boys averaged three times as many turns as girls, and that some boys were more talkative than others; this finding is consistent with much of the research on girls’ and boys’ participation in classes. Their follow-up analysis of the same data, however, suggests an interaction between gender and ethnic group. They found that the boys who dominated the discussion group were white and black Afro-Caribbean; the Asian boys participated much less frequently. White and black Afro-Caribbean girls participated about equally; Asian girls participated the least of any group. They speculate that the topics of discussion and teachers’ attitudes and behaviors in the lesson might contribute to these classroom dynamics (see Swann, 1993, p. 65, for further discussion). Consistent with Claire and Redpath’s first analysis, research by Sadker and Sadker (1993) found no systematic differences between black and white students, students from different age groups, or students from different socioeconomic backgrounds.

Power and Cultural Schools of Thought

The ‘Power’ and ‘Cultural’ Schools of Thought – A Critical Essay Introduction The ten schools of thought proposed by Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and Lampel (2009) provide an insight into different aspects of strategy formation. Mintzberg (2009) explains how we are unable to gain a complete picture of the process of strategy by simply looking at single schools alone, we must look at them all to gain the whole image. The poem the ‘Blind Men and the Elephant’, written by John Godfrey Saxe.The purpose of this essay is to evaluate and compare two schools of thought (chosen at random), the ‘power’ and ‘cultural’ schools. Analysis The ten ‘schools of thought’ are divided by Mintzberg et al (2009) into two distinct catagories. The ‘prescriptive’ schools are concerned more with how strategies should be formed and the ‘descriptive’ schools, which are more concerned with how strategies are fo rmed. The ‘power school’ is to be found in the decriptive school catagory.The influence of power on strategy formation concerning organisations can occur in two environments; the micro-environment, involving power holding parties internal to the organisation, i. e. managers, CEO’s etc. , and the macro-environment, which invoves the organisation as a single entity working with intrest groups from the external environment. It should be made clear at this point what we mean when we talk about ‘power’.French and Raven (1960) further argue that power can arise from five separate sources or bases (further explained in appendix 1); coercive power, reward power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power. Mintzberg et al (2009) describe strategy formation in the power school as a process of negotiation, with its base discipline in political science, Kotelnikov (unknown). The eventual goal of negotiation is to form an agreement between two or more par ties whom originally may have had very different ideas about the given topic.It does not mean simply splitting the arguments down the middle, but reaching agreed goals, thorough bargaining and compromise, which will (hopefully) create positive outcomes for those involved. It is before and during this process that political influences can become prevalent. For those involved in the strategy formulation any number of ‘political games’ (Mintzberg et al (2009)) can be employed in order to affect power and influence among those involved often for personal gain or advantage.Bolman and Deal ((1997) from Mintzberg et al (2009:246) from this propose a number of points about organizational politics and among these suggest that ‘power is the most important resource’. These political games and negotiations are especially rife within the micro-environment. Once this power has been achieved Mintzberg also refers to the ‘48 Laws of Power’ written by Greene an d Elffers (1998) who having studied relevant individuals from the realms of history and present suggest a number of ways of concealing and using power for personal gain.When talking about the macro-environment negotiation becomes less of an internal affair but more so external, for example with pressure groups, suppliers and unions. In this, the macro-instance the ‘stakeholders get added to share holders and the ‘market’ gets replaced by the ‘environment’, thereby opening up the organization to a much wider array of actors and forces’ Mintzberg et al (2009:260).It is also put forward by Pfeffer and Salancik ((1978) from Mintzberg et al (2009), that under the political influences that have changed the way in which organisations operate within the external environment (through the power school) it has three strategic options available to it (further explained in appendix 2); deal with each demand as it arises, strategically withhold and disclose information and play one group against another. These three options all adapt the external environment in order to suit the needs and requirements of the organisation.The benefits of the power school allow the strongest in the organisation or the strongest organisation to survive. All sides of any occurring issues are debated and any resistance among colleagues after the decision is made is kept to a minimal. Strategy formation through the power school also allows necessary change by breaking through any obstacles that may block the way. Limitations to this school are that it uses up a great amount of energy formulating strategies and can be extremely costly. Politics can be extremely divisive and can lead to aberrations.It is also possible that no strategy is decided upon and all that happens is tactical maneuvering. Based on Mintzberg (2009). There are a number of tools available for strategy formulation within the power school (all of which are represented visually complete with advantages and disadvantages of each tool, in the appendices at the end of this paper, appendices 3 -5). The stakeholder analysis (appendix 3) is a tool used in the identification of key stakeholders and assesses their interests ‘and the ways in which these interests affect project riskiness and viability’, (Overseas Development Administration: http://www. uforic. org/gb/stake1. htm#intro). During or before the implementation of a stakeholder analysis it could also be useful to complete a (Kurt Lewin) force field analysis (appendix 4). This tool is used to; ‘investigate the balance of power involved in an issue; identify the most important players (stakeholders) and target groups for a campaign on the issue; identify opponents and allies; identify how to influence each target group’ (12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_lewin_force_field_analysis. html).Also useful within the stakeholder analysis are the internal/external and primary/seconda ry stakeholder analysis, which further help to provide a clearer picture about the positioning of an organisation’s stakeholders. Stakeholder mapping is also a very useful way of exploring power balances with the stakeholders. There are a number of approaches to stakeholder mapping which are further explained in appendix 5, these are; power / dynamism matrix (Gardener et al (1986) from 12Manage. com), power / interest matrix (Gardener et al (1986) from 12Manage. om) and power, legitimacy, urgency (Mitchell, Agle, Wood (1997) from 12Manage. com). A business example of the ‘power school’ in action can be found in Darren McCabe’s 2009 published study on a UK building society. The building society given the pseudonym Brickco, due to the retirement of the original CEO during 1996 a replacement was appointed. During the opening of the case study McCabe (2009: 158) notes that, ‘there appeared to be a struggle between the CEO and senior/middle managers over the ambiguity and contradictions that imbued the strategy discourse’.The conducted study lasted for one year and there are a number of examples of the CEO exerting his authority within the micro-environment of the organisation. After encouraging all staff to work together as a team in the July 1996 Newsletter, the CEO announced a number of changes, McCabe (2009: 159) states in relation to this, ‘as in the case of a privatized utility (Balogun and Johnson, 2004), these strategic and operational priorities were established without the involvement of managers and staff’.The ‘One Team’ strategy again seemed to be initiated alone by the CEO and also the ‘New Foundations’ program followed a similar initiation. These examples clearly identify with the CEO’s use of ‘legitimate power’ in order to set and carryout strategies of his employment along with the use of ‘political games’ in order to ensure employees work to their usual standards and also to minimize the possibility of backlash. Culture, as an aspect of management was discovered during the 1980’ due to the success of Japanese coorporations. While seemingly imitating technologies from the U.S. it was noticed that these coorporations ‘did things differently’. Mintzberg (2009: 276) writes, ‘all fingers pointed to the Japanese culture, and especially how that has been manifested in the large Japanese coorporations’. The culture school is from the descriptive category of the schools of thought (mentioned in the earier paragraphs). The ‘culture school’ has its orgins in anthropology i. e. the study of humanity and in particular cultural anthropology, ‘the study of populations based on historical records and etnographic observations (studyanthropology. rg (unknown: http://www. studyanthropology. org/types-of-anthropology)). Kotelnikov (unknown: http://www. 1000ventures. com/business_guide /crosscuttings/cultural_intelligence. html) defines culture as; ‘Broadly and simply put, â€Å"culture† refers to a group or community with which you share common experiences that shape the way you understand the world’. A more involved definition of the term from the Roshan Cultural Heritage Institute (2001), notes that culture/s can be formed around language, arts and sciences, thought, spirituality, social activity and interaction.Bringing our definition back towards our strategy school focus, corporate culture is defined as; ‘collective behavior of people using common corporate vision, goals, shared values, beliefs, habits, working language, systems and symbols’ (Kotelnikov (unknown: http://www. 1000ventures. com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultural_intelligence. html)). An individual does not suddenly become a part of the culture of an organisation; it is a process of acculturation which itself while taking place is not visually noticeable.With in this strategy school, strategy formulation is viewed as a social process and is based on the understandings and beliefs of individuals involved with the strategy formulation process. Due to its cultural beginnings, dramatic change in strategy is discouraged but continuation is very much encouraged. ‘Strategy takes the form of perspective above all, more than positions, rooted in collective intentions and reflected in patterns by which the deeply embedded resources, of the organization are protected and used for competitive advantage’, based on Mintzberg (2009) sourced from fellner. reinhard. com (unknown: (http://fellner. reinhard. om/different_strategies. htm). Benefits of the ‘culture school’ are that it ‘emphasises the crucial role that social processes, beliefs and values are playing in decision-making and in strategy-formation’, based on Mintzberg (2009) sourced from 12Manage. com (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_mintzberg_te n_schools_of_thought. html). Also this approach assists in the process business mergers and acquisitions by bridging cultural gaps. Limitations are that cultural strategies are not at suited to radical change and it provides very little information about how the situation should emerge following the strategy implementation.When approaching strategy formation from this cultural prospective it maybe appropriate to bridge a national or even religious gap in order for the formation to occur. Hofstede ((1980) from 12Manage. com) published a framework showing five areas or ‘dimensions’ of difference, value perspectives between cultures; power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance and long term versus short term orientation (further explanation of these terms can be found in appendix 6).The Ashridge Mission Model (also used in the ‘strategic school’) can also be used in the formation of strategies from a cultural perspective. Developed by Andrew Campbell after a study by the Ashridge Strategic Management Centre, this model allows clear thinking for those involved; allows for discussion points with colleagues about the mission; the model can be used to not only create new missions but also analyse existing missions.The model contains four separate elements that together provide the foundation for a strong mission / strategy formation, these being; purpose, strategy, values and policies and behavioral standards (the Ashridge Mission Model can be found in appendix 7). Conclusion It is widely considered that the power and culture schools are opposites when considering strategy formulation. Power school strategy formation involves those stakeholders who hold power within the business, whereas in the culture schools strategy formation is unifying among all stakeholders.Political influence and individual concerns shape strategy formation in the power school whereas organisational culture s hapes cultural strategy formation. Although not the case one hundred percent of the time power strategy is capable of allowing radical change whether it is necessary or not, while cultural strategy is unlikely to lead to much change in strategy at all. Cultural strategy is notoriously vague when determining how a situation should eventually conclude whereas goals in a power strategy are clearly defined (if only to the creator/s of the strategy as in the case of Brickco).The Sloan Management Review (1999), sourced from 1000Ventures. com, read that champions of the power school include people who like power, politics and conspiracy, particularly the French. In the culture school champions include people who like the social, the collective and the spiritual, particularly in Scandinavia and Japan. Appendices * Appendix 1 – based on the French and Raven (1959), Five Sources of Power Located at; Reference: ChangingMinds. org. , (unknown), French and Raven’s Five Forms of Pow er, [Online], http://changingminds. org/explanations/power/french_and_raven. htm , accessed October 2010. â€Å"Coercive powerThis is the power to force someone to do something against their will. It is often physical although other threats may be used. It is the power of dictators, despots and bullies. Coercion can result in physical harm, although its principal goal is compliance. Demonstrations of harm are often used to illustrate what will happen if compliance is not gained. Coercion is also the ultimate power of all governments. Although it is often seen as negative, it is also used to keep the peace. Parents coerce young children who know no better. A person holds back their friend who is about to step out in front of a car.Other forms of power can also be used in coercive ways, such as when a reward or expertise is withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion. † â€Å"Reward power One of the main reasons we work is for the money we need to conduct o ur lives. There are many more forms of reward — in fact anything we find desirable can be a reward, from a million dollar yacht to a pat on the back. Reward power is thus the ability to give other people what they want, and hence ask them to do things for you in exchange. Rewards can also be used to punish, such as when they are withheld.The promise is essentially the same: do this and you will get that. † â€Å"Legitimate power Legitimate power is that which is invested in a role. Kings, policemen and managers all have legitimate power. The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one with coercive power. Legitimate power can often thus be the acceptable face of raw power. A common trap that people in such roles can fall into is to forget that people are obeying the position, not them. When they either fall from power or move onto other things, it can be a puzzling surprise that people who used to fawn at your feet no long do so. â€Å"Referent power This is th e power from another person liking you or wanting to be like you. It is the power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all celebrities (by definition) as well as more local social leaders. In wanting to be like these people, we stand near them, hoping some of the charisma will rub off onto us. Those with referent power can also use it for coercion. One of the things we fear most is social exclusion, and all it takes is a word from a social leader for us to be shunned by others in the group. † â€Å"Expert powerWhen I have knowledge and skill that someone else requires, then I have Expert power. This is a very common form of power and is the basis for a very large proportion of human collaboration, including most companies where the principle of specialization allows large and complex enterprises to be undertaken. Expert power is that which is used by Trades Unions when they encourage their members to strike for better pay or working conditions. It is also the power of the s pecialist R&D Engineer when they threaten to leave unless they get an exorbitant pay rise or a seat by the window. * Appendix 2 – 3 strategies available to organisations in the macro-environment Located at: Reference; Mintzberg, H. Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. , (2009), Strategy Safari; The Complete Guide Through the Wilds of Strategic Management, 2nd Edition, page 261, FT Prentice Hall, Great Britain. Also includes references to; Pfeffer, J. and Salancik, G. R. (1978), The External Control of Organisatins; A Resource Dependance Perspective, Harper and Row, New York. An Organisation Can Simply Deal With Each Demand As It Arises.This is another example of Cyert and March’s (1963) sequential attention to goals, but at the level of macro power. Rather than attempting to resolve opposing demands in one fell swoop, the organisation deals with them inturn, for example worrying about pressing financial demands and then turning to concerns about market share (96). An Organ isation Can Strategically Withhold and Disclose Information. In this way it can manipulate expectations and shape outcomes. ‘A group is satisfied relative to what it expects to get [also] by what the group as obtained in the past and by what competing groups obtained.Thus, employees may be willing to forego pay increases when the company is near bankruptcy and suppliers, creditors, owners are also suffering. If the employees found that the owners were secretly profiting they would be quite irate. It is in the organizations interest to keep each group or organisation feel it is getting relatively the best deal. Knowledge of what each group is getting is best kept secret (96). An Organisation Can Play One Group against the Other. For example, ‘the demands of public employees for higher wages can be juxtaposed with the demands of local citizens’ groups for lower taxes’ (97). Appendix 3 – The Stakeholder Analysis ‘A stakeholder analysis is an appro ach that is frequently used to identify and investigate the force field (appendix 4) formed by any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the acheivement of the objective of the organisation’ (12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_stakeholder_analysis. html) A visual example of a stakeholder analysis can be found below (this is not a complete guide, only a start to show as an example). Financial Community Suppliers Owners Board of Directors Project / Organisation Government EmployeesCustomers Competitors Image 1 Benefits and Limitations Benefits; the stakeholder analysis allows for a clearer insight into the relationship with stakeholders and the groups which the individual is involved with. Also it allows for a clearer picture of how larger a part of the organisation and how much power the stakeholder holds and inturn the the priorities and associated risks of the individual. This can help in the formation of better strategies and decisions and a lso lead to a better acceptance of these strategies within the organisation (adapted from 12Manage (unknown)).Limitations; the stakeholder analysis should be conducted consistantly due to the nature of power changes of stakeholders within organisations. It is the prespective of the management that ultimately decides the position of each stakeholder. It is almost impossible to completely satisfy the wants and needs of all stakeholders which allows for a couple of potential strategies; focus on the leading stakeholder group and do what is possile for the others or try to satisfy all demands according their weight or stakeholder value perspective (adapted from 12Manage (unknown)). Appendix 4 – Lewin’s Force Field Analysis Steps to follow when conducting a forcefield analysis (Valuebasedmanagement. net (unknown); 1. Describe the situation you are currently in 2. Describe the situation you want to be in (desired) 3. Identify what will happen if no change occurs 4. List the forces affecting the movement towards the desired situation 5. List the forces preventing change towards the desired situation 6. Investigate all these forces and decide if they can be changed 7. Apply a scale and decide upon the score of each factor e. g. 1 = very weak, 10=very strong 8.List the factors, driving forces on the left and opposing factors on the right 9. Determine if change is possible 10. Discuss the appropriate action i. e. making opposing factors weaker or strengthening the driving forces 11. Allow for the possibiity that changing any factor could create new factors or change the effect of others. A visual example of the force field analysis Driving Force Resisting Force Desired Position Current Situation Resistant Factors Driving Factors Resisting Force Driving Force Resisting Force Driving Force Resisting Force Driving Force Resisting Force Image 2 Appendix 5 – Stakeholder Mapping The three examples of stakeholder mapping shown below have been sourced from 12Manage. com (http://www. 12manage. com/methods_stakeholder_mapping. html), however the reference to their origianal authors are below the images. The power / dynamism matrix assess the level of power of each stakeholder and also the dynamism of their stance in order to ascertain the amount of political effort that should be put their way. High Low Dynamism Power Low A Fewest Problems B Unpredictable but manageble High C Powerful but predictable D Greatest danger or oppertunitiesPower / Dynamism Matrix (Gardener et al (1986)) The power / interest matrix assess how much power a stakeholder has and how much interest in the organisations strategies they are likely to show, thus allowing for a measure of what kind of relationship to have with the stakeholder. Level of Interest Low High Power Low A Minimal Effort B Keep Informed High C Keep Satisfied D Key Players Power / Interrest Matrix (Gardener et al (1986)) The power, legitimacy and urgency model places stakeholder behavior into on e of seven areas depending on the combination of the characters named in the model title.Below is quoted from 12Manage. com (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_stakeholder_mapping. html) * POWER of the stakeholder to influence the organisation. * LEGITIMACY of the relationship and actions of the stakeholder with the organisation in terms of desirability, properness or appropriateness. * URGENCY of the requirements being set for the organisation by a stakeholder in terms of criticality and time-sensitivity for the stakeholder. The stakeholders who show only one of the three characteristics (number 1, 2 and 3, in the picture (below)) are defined as the Latent Stakeholders.They are sub-classified further as dormant, discretionary or demanding stakeholders. The stakeholders who show two out 3 of the characteristics (number 4, 5 and 6 in the picture (below)) are defined as Expectant Stakeholders. They are sub-classified further as dominant, dangerous or dependant stakeholders. Th e stakeholders showing all 3 characteristics are called Definitive Stakeholders. POWER (dominant) 4. LEGITIMACY 1. (dormant) (discretionary) (definitive) 6. 5. 7. 2. (dependent) (dangerous) URGENCY 3. (demanding) Power / Legitimacy / Urgency (Mitchell, Agle, Wood (1997))Appendix 6 – Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Reference; 12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_hofstede. html) * Power Distance – the degree of inequality amoung people which the population of a country considers as normal * Individualism Vs Collectivism – the extent to which people fee they are supposed to take care for, or to be cared for by themselves, their families r organisations they belong to * Masculinity Vs Femininity – the extent to which a culture is conducive to dominance, assertiveness and acquisition of things.Versus a culture which is more cuducive to people, feelings and quality of life. * Uncertinty Avoidance – the degree to which people in a co untry prefer structure over unstructured situations * Long term Vs Short term Orientation – Long term: values oriented towards the future, like saving and persistance. Short term: values oriented towards the past and present, like respect for tradition and fullfilling social obligations. Appendix 7 – Ashridge Mission Model Reference; 12Manage (unknown: http://www. 12manage. com/methods_campbell_ashridge_mission_model. tml) Steps: These are the ten questions by which you can measure the quality of a mission statement. * Purpose 1. Does the statement describe an inspiring purpose that avoids playing the selfish interests of the stakeholder – shareholders, customers, employees, suppliers? 2. Does the statement describe the company’s responsibility to its stakeholders? * Strategy 3. Does the statement describe a business domain and explain why it is attractive? 4. Does the statement describe the strategic positioning that the company prefers in a way that hel ps to identify the sort of competitive advantage it will look for? Values 5. Does the statement identify values that link the organisations purpose and act as beliefs that employees can feel proud of? 6. Do the values ‘resonate’ with and reinforce the organisations strategy? * Behavioral Standards 7. Does the statement describe important behavioral standards that serve as beacons of the strategy and the values? 8. Are the behavioral standards described in such a way that individual employees can judge whether they have behaved correctly or not? * Character 9. Does the statement give a portrait of the company and does it capture the culture of the organisation? 10.Is the statement easy to read? Benefits of this model; * Combines strategic and cultural motivators to guide an organisation * The model is particularly useful to ensure that a company has a clear Mission AND it has employees with a strong Sense of Mission * The model emphasises the need for a fit between strat egy and values. Aditionally the Ashridge Model recognises the importance of the link between organisational shared values and the private values of employees and managers. * Improves decision making. Raises energy levels. Reduces the need for supervision. Promotes constructive behavior.Increases satisfaction and loyalty. * Puts corporate purpose as the corner stone and starting point of a mission. Limitations of this model; * Having inappropriate values or an inappropriate sense of mission is a powerful negative influence on employee behavior. * Shared values and sense of mission are often extremly difficult to change and can become an obstacle for change. * Strongly shared values or a strong sense of mission can lead to an insularity that becomes xenophobic. * Creating a mission statement is often a time – and resource – consuming process. Assumptions of the model; Committed employees and teams perform more efficiently and more effectively than appathetic employees an d teams do. * People connect themselves more easily to values than to abstract strategic concepts. * A mission must be clearly defined and managed. An intuitive understanding of mission is not enough. (EMPLOYEE) VALUES Employee’s personal values PURPOSE Why the company exists (COMPANY) VALUES What the company believes in STRATEGY The competitive position and distictive competance STANDARDS AND BEHAVIORS The policies and behavioral patterns that underpin the distinctive competance and the value system Ashridge Mission Model (Cambell (1992)

Research Differentiatin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Research Differentiatin - Essay Example l design, the researchers were able to demonstrate conditions which have caused judges to treat cases related to gender violence in a more punitive and serious manner than before. The research design was used to demonstrate changes within the sentencing attitudes in abuse cases. The article â€Å"Investigating the Relationship between Justice-Vengeance Motivations and Punitive Sentencing Recommendations† is based on an experimental research design (Murray, Thomson, Cooke & Charles, 2013). The experimental design enabled the researchers to have control over the variables of the experiment (Hagan, 2011). This design allowed the researchers to gather qualitative data on how vengeance and justice motivations influenced punitive sentencing in criminal judicial processes. Through the experimental design, valid findings were obtained and used to make credible inferences and recommendations on the topic under study (Elliott, Thomas & Ogloff, 2011). On the basis of a case study design, Lin, Grattet & Petersilia (2012) present credible quantitative research findings in their article â€Å"Justice By Other Means: Venue Sorting In Parole Revocation†. The researchers used California prisons as a case study, upon which they were able to investigate institutional culture and procedures of California’s parole revocation system. They based their study on the issue of processing or sorting venues for the revocation of parole. The case study design enabled the researchers to come up with in-depth or comprehensive data, which can be generalized and applied within other parole systems (Elliott, Thomas & Ogloff, 2011). Through a case study design, Galletly, Pinkerton & DiFranceisco (2012) reveal quantitative research findings on Michigans Criminal HIV Exposure Law among HIV positive individuals. The Michigan case study was used to narrow the research into a specific and researchable example (Staton-Tindall, McNees, Leukefeld, Walker, Thompson, Pangburn & Oser, 2009). The case study

Outline the basic principles of archaeological excavation Essay

Outline the basic principles of archaeological excavation - Essay Example It is at this stage also that the permits to excavate a certain place have to be acquired. The process cannot just happen without the consent of the in charge bodies (Balme & Paterson, 2006 p98). This particular stage involves figuring out what procedures to be used in the excavation progression. There is a wide range of processes ranging from the simple to complex methods. The equipment to be used to excavate should also decide at this juncture and ensure that it will get the work done (Balme & Paterson, 2006 p9106) These should be set up to provide proper working areas to examine the discovered artifacts. This ensures that the transport of discoveries that might damage them or lead to loss of important information is totally avoided. This phase involves putting together all the content of the whole process and sorting it out. This stage finally makes sense of the entire excavation process by organizing and placing all the information in a manner that is easily comprehensible (Balme & Paterson, 2006 p113). This is the final stage in the excavation process. After all the data has been analyzed and put in order, the final verdict can be given about what was discovered. In conclusion, in order to achieve the desired results, the excavation process must follow a series of steps and ensure everything is done

Discussion Questions Week 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discussion Questions Week 3 - Essay Example enter into the contract is important since it can help to protect either party in the case of a disagreement, as well as to ensure that the agreement is carried out as planned. The legal competence of each party is important so that the contract can be enforceable in a court of law if the need arises. According to J. Rank (2008, pg. 1), a bilateral contract is, â€Å"An agreement formed by an exchange of a promise in which the promise of one party is consideration supporting the promise of the other party. A bilateral contract is distinguishable from a unilateral contract, a promise made by one party in exchange for the performance of some act by the other party. The party to a unilateral contract whose performance is sought is not obligated to act, but if he or she does, the party that made the promise is bound to comply with the terms of the agreement. In a bilateral contract both parties are bound by their exchange of promises.† There are a number of examples that could constitute each type of contract. For instance, consider first the bilateral contract. An example of a bilateral contract that an individual could encounter would include a contract in which an individual purchasing a car agrees to purchase the vehicle if and only if the car dealership agrees to fix a dent in the car before it is delivered. If either party fails to keep up his or her end of the bargain, the contract is breached. An example of a unilateral contract could be a lease. In this case, the individual agrees to stay at a property for a certain length of time, but the property owners promise nothing. According to the Department of Justice (2008, pg. 1), â€Å"All contracts may be oral, except such as are specially required by statute to be in writing. Where a contract, which is required by law to be in writing, is prevented from being put in writing by the fraud of a party thereto, any other party is by such fraud led to believe that it is in writing, and acts upon such belief to

Kia motors corporation sustainability and human resources Essay

Kia motors corporation sustainability and human resources - Essay Example This paper utilised Sustainability Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA) framework in assessing KIA Motors sustainability and human resource managements. Although there is still much to be done by KIA in order to realise full sustainability, the company has proved to have put some measures that would help it towards this effect. Introduction It is apparent that, in every business, sustainability is an ingredient and key to success. However, this does not just come without deliberate attempts by organisations to strategically develop and maintain the sustainability. In light with this, organisations have to analyse the required tools that would help to maintain the sustainability. Basically, sustainability does not come as a single pack of ideas; it involves incorporation of various concepts of business management. Notably, Galea1 (35-48), noted that these range from setting organisation’s objectives, mission and vision statements, effective human resource management, and appropriate st rategic plans to keep and oversee efficient running of the organisation. In assessing firms’ sustainability and human resource, various frameworks may be employed towards this effect. ... In relation to KIA Motors Corporation, this paper is going to utilise Sustainability Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA) framework. SLCA tools are based on the framework for strategic sustainable development. The evaluation system for KIA will be set against the life cycle stages of KIA products, corporate social responsibility, and human resource management. KIA human resources According to KIA website1, the company has been able to thrive in the market as a result of â€Å"the leadership of ambitious and industry-focused management team who play an imperative role in the day-to-day activities in growing the brand around the world.† According to literatures, any company that needs to maintain its competitive advantage has to have a proficient and result oriented workforce. However, this is abroad concept that incorporates several aspects of leadership. Firstly, according to Galea1 (35-48), employees are one of the primary assets of any organisation. Nevertheless, for employees to be able to deliver top results there must be an effective management team to oversee effective and smooth running of the organisation. Arguably, KIA has been able to recognise and employed that concept in its operations. According to Stuart 7 (59-83), there has been a transformation for capitalism from old capitalism to modern capitalism. However, today’s capitalism is faced with challenges such as environmental change, economic inequity, and financial meltdown, which organisations must address in order to maintain sustainability. In light with this, KIA can be argued to have put that into consideration when defining its sustainability model. In essence, in order to counter the above challenges, an organisation should have strategies put in place. One of these strategies is to have

Macroeconomics - Inflation, Disinflation and Deflation Term Paper

Macroeconomics - Inflation, Disinflation and Deflation - Term Paper Example The paper outlines that the global financial crisis has led the whole world to think of taking the radical measures through which the financial situation of the globe can be improved. The global recession spread across Europe and US has also caused everyone to become indebted. This situation serious attention and the first thing that the economists need to do are to review the macroeconomic policies in their respective economies in order to reform them. The most dangerous economic ailment that is also considered as a potential cause of economic recession is inflation, which is known as the sustained rise in the general level of prices for the goods and services. Due to the inflation, the monetary value liquidates and although people have same amount of money, but their buying power is reduced. Therefore, the purpose of the report is to make the readers understand some of the basic yet alarming principles of macroeconomics that are leading the current financial situation in to its worst era. Apart from the causes and effects of inflation, the disinflation, and deflation will also be discussed. In the end, the conclusions and recommendations will be made concerning how the inflation and its forms can be overcome. The main conclusion from the study is that inflation and deflation are the two driving forces that drag the prices sometimes up and sometimes down. The rise in the inflation leads to rise in supply and decline in demand, where as the deflation rise will result in the decline in supply and rise in demand, and this cycle goes the same way.

Apple - Sweatshop Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Apple - Sweatshop - Essay Example It is crucial to note that the term stakeholder refers to the entire group of people affected by an organization’s operations. Different companies adopt different approaches of CSR. These approaches include; the Canadian, Continental European, and Anglo-Saxon approaches. Despite the differing approaches, most organizations adopt a common approach which involves philanthropy through giving out aids and monetary donations. However, some organizations opt to incorporate CSR into the firm’s business strategy, whereas others opt to Create Shared Value (CSV). CSV revolves around the idea that success within an organization is interdependent on the society’s welfare (William & David 156). Carroll’s CSR model is a four-layered pyramid. The bottom layer contains the label economic responsibilities, and it represents the profitable endeavors of an organization. This layer is the foundation on which all other layers rely on. Just above this layer lies the legal respo nsibilities layer, which represents, the legal obligations an organization must follow to avoid attracting legal liabilities. The next layer’s label is ethical responsibilities, and this layer represents an organization’s obligation to do what the society considers as acceptable, right and fair in order to avoid any harm befalling any of the stakeholders. The top-most layer has the philanthropic responsibilities label attached to it. This entails an organization’s involvement in exemplary corporate citizenship through engagement in philanthropic endeavors within the community as a way of giving back or saying thanks for the support granted by the community. Carroll’s arrangement of responsibilities on a pyramid served to show the existence of tension between the responsibilities. This arrangement also showed that the responsibilities were not mutually exclusive. Carroll’s CSR model continues to be empirically tested in many organizations around the world, for example, the initial empirical test involved an analysis of Forbes leading company CEOs in 1985 (McDermott 98). Apple Company continues to face allegations of using sweatshop labor in its Foxconn's plant, in China. In addition, the company faced allegations of involvement in practices which led to environmental destruction. Apple’s practices constituted to unethical business practice in the eyes of the company’s critics. The allegations compelled Apple to conduct further investigations and figure out ways in which the company could once again appease its stakeholders. From the investigations carried out, Apple tried to reassure its stakeholders that the allegations made about the company's use of sweatshop labor were false. However, the company executives acknowledged the presence of some irregularities with the labor relations policies used by the organization at the Foxconn plant. The further went to assure their stakeholders that the irregularities were of a technical nature and, that company personnel were tirelessly working to rectify these irregularities, for example, the use of complex remuneration systems. They refuted all allegations of the use of forced, child or sweatshop labor made against them by supporting their claims using investigation reports (Laurie & Lawrence 77). Carroll’s CSR model emphasizes the existence of tension between the different categories of responsibility. However, he maintains that the different cat

Case Study #4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Case Study #4 - Essay Example Against this background, the major problem sought to be addressed by the case study is that of trying to assist both Mike and Dorothy on the best way they can adopt in order to be better positioned to cope with the disease. The other issue being addressed is that of trying to find out possible means of helping Mike to prevent the disease, foster independence as well improving the quality of life. It can also be noted that emphasis is put on the notion that this kind of ailment is not equivalent to mental disorder or madness but just something that can be associated with old age where one can manage to treat it or live with it without major repercussions. This can be treated as a normal development in elderly people where they can get proper medication to overcome this ailment and lead a normal life once again. In some cases, elderly people tend to lose track of events which can be a normal thing given that the brain, just like any other part of the body reaches a point of getting tired as result of age thereby cannot continue to function perfectly compared to the young and energetic adult people. The major concepts presented in the text include the issue of forgetfulness which can either be attributed to Alzheimer disease. Schaie & Willis (2002) suggest that the condition of forgetfulness of the mind can be attributed to old age and this is seen as a normal development in the life of the human beings as they rich older ages. Thomas (1996) also concurs that research has shown that about 25 million adults have what he calls Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Some do not know it but in case of the adult people, it can ruin their relationships because of their forgetfulness, inability to be on time and in some cases leaving unfinished projects. In the case of Mike, it can be noted that he is beginning to forget even week days as well as the names of

Undertake a brief SWOT for Intel Essay Example for Free

Undertake a brief SWOT for Intel Essay Reading summary At the beginning, Intel had no distinguished trademark Intel launched the â€Å"Intel inside† campaign to build brand awareness of their microprocessors, which has their brand kept in mind by consumers. (Intel logo) The success of bunny people series – a successful marketing campaign in 1990 2003, Centino includes new micro processor, extended battery life and wireless features. Using Media. In mid 2000s, although PC industries went down, Intel focused on new opportunities fto seek a new growth in home entertainment and mobile phones. Brainy â€Å"microprocessor company† was repositioned to â€Å"warm and fuzzy company†. Slogan â€Å"Leap ahead† replaced â€Å"Intel inside†. New Logo was created. In 2007, Intel learning series was created, which is regarded as education-friendly. Core i7 – atom Microprocessor – cutting-edge. New campaign â€Å"sponsors of tomorrow†. Continue to be microprocessor-focused. Questions 1. Undertake a brief SWOT for Intel. Strength Intel has a large market share and it adds much value to its brand. Besides, Intel has their loyal customers throughout the world, most people are familiar with the brand of Intel. It can be discerned that the success of Intel’s microprocessor is due to its powerful team of RD. Weaknesses To some extent, Intel focused too much on PC, ignoring the mobile market, which is considered as a promising field. Opportunities As can be seen, Intel kept customers as their first preference and made changes on regular basis to meet their users’ needs. Threats Today, customer taste changes a lot, and their preferences might shift to the other competitive products easily given that they do not get what they need. Their threats also come from other strong competitors, such as Dell and IBM etc. 2. What growth strategies should Intel pursue based on information from the case? I think Intel could focus on laptop market, because the design of thinner and lighter laptops has been the trend. Intel could take the advantage of their microprocessor technology to expand their laptop market.

Enhancing Teaching and Learning Practices in Malaysia

Enhancing Teaching and Learning Practices in Malaysia Education is one of the main fundamentals in building up a nation. In Malaysia, education has always been the top priority of the government. About a quarter of the government 5 years budget is allocated to the ministry of education to maintain good education system in this country. The vision of the government is to make Malaysia a centre of educational excellence. There are three levels of education in Malaysia which are the primary education a period of six years, that is, from Standard One to Standard Six; secondary education five years, that is, from Form One to Form Five; and the tertiary level of education. Upon completion of secondary education, eligible students can opt to pursue two years of post-secondary education, Form Six. This is the university entrance preparatory course. The pre-tertiary education (pre-school to post-secondary education) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (MOE) while tertiary or higher education is the responsibility of the Mini stry of Higher Education (MOHE).  [1]   Education is a priority of the Federal Government of Malaysia and it is committed to provide quality education to all. Most of the Five-Year Malaysian Plans have placed great importance on education, training and lifelong learning. In line with greater focus on human development, an average of about twenty-one percent of the total budget allocation has been allocated for the expenditure of education and training development. The national philosophy of education states that Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. It is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, possess high moral standards, and are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being as well as to contribute to the betterment of the family, society and nation at large.  [2]   In order to support Vision 2020 the education system is transforming which entail changing the culture and practices of Malaysias primary and secondary schools, moving away from memory-based learning to an education that stimulates thinking, creativity, caters to individual abilities and learning styles, and based on a more equitable access. At the same time, Malaysia is initiating many approaches in order to keep up with the changing world and current needs which will generate a well-structured development of higher education. The government has also clearly outlined the strategic thrusts in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan to make Malaysia an international centre of educational excellence by 2020.  [3]   MALAYSIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM Education is the responsibility of the Federal Government. Malaysias national education system is divided into pre-tertiary and tertiary education. There are two governing authorities for the education sector. Pre-tertiary education, that is, from pre-school to secondary education, is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (MOE) while tertiary education or higher education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). Under the national education system, a child begins his/her education with pre-school education at the age of four and will be admitted into the first year of the six years compulsory primary education when the child reaches the age of six on the first day of January of the current school year. The government provides eleven years of free primary and secondary education. Most schools in the country are government or government-aided schools and a number of private schools. The school starts in January and ends in November. Students sit f or common public examinations at the end of primary, lower secondary, supper secondary and sixth form levels.  [4]   Pre-school Education. Pre-school education is part of the National Education System under the Education Act, 1996. The aim of pre-school education is to provide a firm foundation for formal education. Pre-schools are run by government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as well as private institutions. The major government agencies that are responsible for pre-school education are the Ministry of Education (MOE), the Ministry of Rural Development, and the Ministry of National Unity and Community Development. Children enroll between the ages of four and six and all pre-schools have to abide the curriculum guidelines set by the Ministry of Education. The curriculum enables pre-school children to acquire sufficient basin communication, social and other positive skills in preparation for primary schooling. The learning components include language and communication, physical development, cognitive development, moral and spiritual growth, socio-emotional development, aesthetic and creativity. Primary Education. Primary education is divided into two phases phase 1: Year 1-3 and phase 2: Year 4-6. Education at this level aims to provide the child with a firm foundation in the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic, as well as emphasizing thinking skills and values across the curriculum. While education at this level is not compulsory, more than ninety-nine percent of this age-group are enrolled in primary schools throughout the country. There are two types of schools at the primary level the National Schools and the National-Type Schools. In the National Schools the medium of instruction is the Malay language which is the national language. The medium of instruction in the National-Type Schools is either Chinese language or Tamil language. in both types of schools, the Malay language is a compulsory subject. English is compulsory and is taught as a second language in all schools. Chinese, Tamil and indigenous languages are also offered as subjects in national sch ools.  [5]   Secondary Education. Secondary education is basically an extension of primary level education. Education at this level is general in nature and is divided into lower and upper secondary level, and a special year transition program known as Remove Class for pupils from the National-Type Chinese and Tamil Primary Schools.  [6]   Remove Class. Remove Class is a transition year for pupils from the Chinese and Tamil medium schools to acquire sufficient proficiency in the national language to enable them to learn through this medium the following year. However, pupils who have performed well in the Primary Assessment Test (UPSR Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah) at the end of Year 6, are allowed to proceed directly to Form 1. Lower Secondary Level (Form 1-Form 3). This level covers a period of three years. Education at this level is general in nature. All subjects are core subjects and compulsory for all. Chinese, language, Tamil language and Arabic language (Communication) are offered as additional subjects. Upon completion, pupils sit for a common examination, that is, the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR Penilaian Menengah Rendah). Upper Secondary (Form 4-5). Education at this level covers a period of two years. Besides following the general education program, students begin to specialize in the science, arts, technical, vocational and religious discipline. Specific schools are designated for each discipline. These schools are academic schools, technical schools, vocational schools and religious schools. Upon completion, students sit for the Malaysian Certificate of Education (SPM Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) examination. Secondary Technical Schools. Secondary technical education is aimed at producing an adequate pool of qualified students who excel in mathematics and science, as well as in basic engineering subjects. Students in secondary technical schools follow the same core subjects of upper secondary school curriculum and choose science and technical subjects as electives. Admission to these schools is through application based on the PMR results, and only students with strong background in Mathematics and Science are selected. Students from these schools are expected to continue their studies in science and technology-related courses at the higher levels as well as in advanced skills. Secondary Vocational Schools. These schools provide courses in pre-employment skills as well as general education. Courses are offered in two streams vocational education stream and skills education stream. In the former, emphasis is given to general and technical subjects in order to provide students with a good foundation for admission into polytechnics or other higher institutions. In the skills stream emphasis is given to practical work to develop competency in trade skills required by related industries. Students are prepared for the National Vocational Training Certificate. Upon completion of eleven years of free education, further education is no longer automatic but is subject to the individuals academic performance and financial stability. These upper secondary school graduates, that is, Form Five leavers, can opt to continue their education in post-secondary schools to obtain a pre-university qualification such as the Sixth Form or Matriculation program or GCE ALevel, or further their education at tertiary or higher institutions. Higher education includes certificate, diploma, undergraduates as well as postgraduate studies. Undergraduate studies consist of Bachelors degree levels and professional studies while postgraduate studies consist of Masters degrees and PhD levels. Generally, higher education at the diploma level is for secondary school certificate holders, that is, Form Five (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia or SPM) from the age of seventeen onwards. The Bachelors degree is for students from the age of nineteen onwards with post-secondary qualifica tions such Form Six (STPM Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia), which is equivalent to the GCE ALevel, or pre-university qualifications.  [7]   MALAYSIAN SCHOOL CURRICULUM The role of the school curriculum is to ensure the holistic development of the individuals potential, mentally, spiritually, emotionally and physically. The curriculum is to bring faster the Malaysian citizen who is balanced and well-rounded individual, trained, skillful and cherishes the national aspiration for unity. The Malaysian school curriculum has been reframed and realigned to present and future needs. Besides that, rapid developments in technology, new theories of learning and developments within Malaysia itself necessitated the systematic curriculum. The basis of the curriculum took into considerations four main aspects national development, individual development, learning theories, and the national philosophy of education.  [8]   The basic theoretical principle in the planning and design of the Malaysian curriculum is the integrated approach. Infusion of specific aspects of education such as moral values, patriotism, science and technology, language, environmental education, study skills, creative and critical thinking, and road safety across the subject disciplines is a basic feature in the Malaysian curriculum. Such an infusion is made with the purpose of consolidating these aspects which may already be in the school subjects but needs further emphasis. Patriotism, for example, is already discussed in History and Local Studies but because of its importance, the national curriculum requires that it be taught across other subjects. Others such as environmental education are taught across the curriculum because it cannot be accorded the status of subject due to constraints of time, facilities and the like. The technical, vocational and skills training offered in secondary technical and secondary vocational schools provide students with practical training and employability skills. Besides that, the use of technology as an enabler to facilitate teaching and learning activities have made learning interesting, motivating, stimulating, meaningful and develop skills that will prepare students to face greater challenges.  [9]   Pre-school Curriculum. The pre-school curriculum focuses on the whole-child development. The curriculum emphasizes on socialization process, the development of personality and the preparation of children to enter primary school. The components in the curriculum include language and communication, cognitive development, socio-emotional development, spiritual development, physical development and aesthetic and creativity. Primary School Curriculum. The Integrated Curriculum for Primary School (ICPS) is divided into two phases phase 1 for Year 1-3 and phase 2 for Year 4-6. The ICPS emphasizes the mastery, reinforcement and application of 3Rs, acquisition of complex skills and knowledge, pre-vocational skill, and the development of personality, attitudes and values. The ICPS consists of three areas, mainly communication, man and his environment, and self development. These areas are further divide into six components basic skills, humanities, art and recreation, living skills, communication, spiritually, values and attitudes. Secondary School Curriculum. The emphasis of Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (ICCS) is on general education, the consolidation of skills acquired in primary school, the development of attitudes, values, personality, and interests as well as specialization for higher education and career options. CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN EDUCATION In the twenty-first century, education in Malaysia will face significant challenge as it is in this century that the country is set to become industrialized. It is imperative therefore to understand what it is that needs to be given attention for the education system to prepare adequately for the century: Shift to K-economy. Knowledge has to be the basic form of capital in the twenty-first century to position Malaysia for industrialization. The education system must yield knowledge workers to push Malaysia into the K-economy. Knowledge workers are essential for the country to make investments in technology which will contribute to sustainable growth. Malaysian education must enhance knowledge and technology in every facet of its education system.  [10]   Improving Education Qualities. Given all the qualitative achievements at all levels of education with continuous growth of enrolment rates, Malaysian education has to shift to the dominance of qualitative target. Several factors have to be considered for determining educational quality. The areas of content and delivery that directly affect teaching and learning must be given emphasis. There have to be innovations within the approach for both the content and delivery at all levels of education. To ensure effective delivery, teacher professionalism has to be addressed to induce greater professionalism among school teachers. Recruitments, training and school restructuring should be the primary target areas for introducing professionalism among teachers.  [11]   Narrowing the Digital Divide. The equity issue in education should aim for providing equal access to education. The focus of democratization of the education in the twenty-first century will be in terms of providing equity in education with emphasis on knowledge and technology between rural and urban school population. Malaysian education has to achieve increase participation and improved performance in science and technology especially among the school population. Apart from providing the necessary infrastructure, science and technology have to be aggressively promoted to harness interest among students.  [12]   Redifining the Role of the Private Sector. The role of the private sector is vital particularly at the higher level of education. It releases some of the heavy financing load off the government, reduces the capacity constraints of the public institutions, and provide innovation and competition. Nonetheless, profit and commercial motivations have developed a number of problems. These problems if not address adequately will effect the quality of higher education in the country. One broad question that should be addressed is what should be the role of private higher education should they be complementary, supplementary or both.  [13]   Teaching Methodology. Two shortcoming are identified in the current practice: (i) lecture-based instruction students tend to become passive recipients of knowledge and resort to rote learning; (ii) teacher-centered students tend to rely on their teachers to decide what, when, and how to learn. This worked relatively well but it is not clear that students are learning at higher, conceptual level of thinking.  [14]   PROPOSED ENHANCEMENTS Several factors ought to facilitate the enhancements of the Malaysian education system, especially the national curriculum such as the introduction of new subjects and programs in schools. The facilitating factors include findings of research and studies, public opinions, world trends, social and economic needs and political pressures. In addition, they are to be facilitated further with the existence of the following supporting factors at varying degrees: The governments continued efforts to expand and improve education and training through increase in the budget for education. The experience over the years of the nations education policy in enhancing quality and access to education to meet the needs of rapid development of the nation. Availability of basic infrastructure and training, that is, in-service teacher training, seminars, forums and workshops to familiarize teachers with the curriculum and to upgrade teachers efficiency. Continuous training received by ministry officers both locally and overseas covering a wide range of topics which helps the officers to gain more knowledge and experience in planning and implementing curriculum reform initiatives. Public awareness and support to carry out educational reforms to fulfill the needs of cultural, social and economic development. Efforts by both the government and private sectors to intensify the acquisition and application of information and communication technologies in all fields of life as a result of globalization and modernisation. The strong commitment and awareness among parents of the importance of education in producing educated, knowledgeable and skillful Malaysians who are prudent, creative and innovative. In the learning process, to develop inter-personal and small-group skills teachers must provide opportunities for group members to know each other, support and accept each other, communicate accurately and confidently, and resolve differences constructively. Promotive interactions individual can achieve promotive interaction by helping each other, exchanging resources, challenging each others conclusion, provide feedback, encouraging and striving for mutual benefits. Individual accountability teachers should assess the amount of effort that each member is contributing. These can be done by giving an individual test to each student and randomly calling students to present their groups work. Group processing teachers should provide opportunities for the class to assess group progress. This would enable group to focus on good working relationship, facilitate cooperation in learning and ensure members get feedback.  [15]   The curriculum must be so designed and randomly monitored to help students achieve overall and balance development and improvement. Appropriate mix of learning strategies to ensure mastery of basic competencies and promotion of holistic development. More emphasis should be given on students understanding of a particular concept, guiding students in active learning, providing opportunities for discussion and elaboration, and encouraging them to work with peers and teachers. Encourage and support collaborative effort with students from other schools or even from other countries. The curriculum and teaching methodology must cater to students different capabilities, for example, their learning styles and levels of intelligence. Allow students to practice self-paced, self-accessed and self-directed learning which can be facilitated via the use of technology.  [16]   CONCLUSION The environment and socialisation process to which students are exposed remain as important factors contributing to academic success and character building. The Malaysian educational system, at pre-school, primary and tertiary levels have consistently emphasised on the importance of nurturing, among others, moral values and ethics among students. Thus, the quality of education that teachers provide to students is highly dependent upon what teachers do in the classroom. Teachers should have the knowledge on how students learn and how best to teach. In addition, contemporary learning and teaching methodology should be in line with the technologies of tomorrow where technologies and communications infrastructure are paving the way for a more sophisticated ICT-enabled teaching and learning environment. Indeed, with the advent of globalisation and modernisation, the education curriculum in Malaysia for sustainable development in the new century, call for a total commitments from all Malaysians, with a sense of urgency in the face of increasing competition. The Malaysian policy framework recognises that education development plays an ever important role in building a sustainable, resilient and competitive society. Interestingly, the global education scenario has similar development strategies, namely, by providing wider accessibilities, ensuring quality education, continuous strategic education reforms so that the respective countries can compete as global education providers. In fact, education has already evolved into a big economic entity for some countries. Malaysia ought to be ready to face these challenges in the field of education, both internally and externally, with the advent of globalisation, trade liberalisation, and the development of ICT in this new century.

Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Essay -- Dangers of Smoking

Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Smoking is a deadly habit to keep, literally. Smoking along with other contributing factors such as high blood pressure and cholesterol can cause chronic diseases. One disease that has been the number one killer of men and women in the U.S. is cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular disease has many contributors, but smoking itself is a high risk to contract the disease. Non-smokers also have to pay attention to the air they are breathing because the smoke around you can kill you! What is heart disease? Many of us at a young age believe that heart disease can only happen to â€Å"older† people. The truth is that heart disease has to be considered while a person is young, how a person takes care of their body inside and out will determine what diseases are in store at an older age. For instance, cardiovascular disease (CVD) accounts for forty-two percent of all deaths in the U.S. (healingwithnutrition.com) and smoking is one of the highest contributors to obtaining this dreadful disease. Cardiovascular Disease CVD also is the leading cause of death of Americans age thirty-five and older (healingwithnutrion.com)! Who says you have to be old to have heart disease? According to the 2003 General Household Survey taken by the Office of National Statistics, forty-five percent of Americans between the age of twenty-five to fifty-nine years of age smokethe highest of all age groups. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) includes dysfunctional condi...

A Postmodern Cultural Perspective in Lolita and A Streetcar Named Desir

A Postmodern Cultural Perspective in Lolita and A Streetcar Named Desire Postmodernism has emerged as a reaction to modernism thoughts and "well-established modernist systems". (Wikipedia, 2005) Specific to Nabokov's Lolita and Williams' Streetcar Named Desire is the idea that both of the novels are written under the view of postmodernism as a cultural movement and that they are broadly defined as the condition of Western society especially after World War II (period in which the novel were written; 1947 for Streetcar and 1955 for Lolita). While modernists viewed people as autonomous (capable of independent rational thought), postmodernists see human identity and thinking as the product of culture. (Xenos Christian Fellowship, 2005). The postmodern main assumption here is that culture and society create individuals as well as all their thoughts and attitudes. Lolita and A Streetcar Named Desire both treat of Cultural Relativism, which is the view that each culture has it's own truths that are relevant to them, but not relevant to other cultures. (Wikipedia, 2005) Economic changes, immigration, capitalism expansion, development of mass and popular culture, which result of the post-war period will also play a great role in defining cultural perspectives in Nabokov and Williams' stories and characters but also in defining the American culture itself. The main characters serve as archetypes of different cultures and symbolizes the integration of Europe in the the Un... ...umbert's European ear also revises American idiom when he talk about his "west-door neighbor." (Lolita, p. 179) To conclude, both stories have a strong cultural orientation, which result from the post World War II environment, in which a crassly materialistic and insensitive industrial society followed. The postmodern assumption that human identity and thinking are the product of culture and that culture and society create individuals as well as all their thoughts and attitudes (Xenos Christian Fellowship, 2005), is clearly demonstrated by Lolita's consumerist ideals and Blanche's collapse in the new southern culture.

Memory :: essays research papers

Memory is defined as the faculty by which sense impressions and information are retained in the mind and subsequently recalled. A person’s capacity to remember and the total store of mentally retained impressions and knowledge also formulate memory. (Webster, 1992) â€Å"We all possess inside our heads a system for declassifying, storing and retrieving information that exceeds the best computer capacity, flexibility, and speed. Yet the same system is so limited and unreliable that it cannot consistently remember a nine-digit phone number long enough to dial it† (Baddeley, 1993). The examination of human behavior reveals that current activities are inescapably linked by memories. General â€Å"competent† (1993) behavior requires that certain past events have effect on the influences in the present. For example, touching a hot stove would cause a burn and therefore memory would convey a message to not repeat again. All of this is effected by the development of short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Memories can be positive, like memories of girlfriends and special events, or they can be negative, such as suppressed memories. Sexual abuse of children and Memory 3 adolescents is known to cause severe psychological and emotional damage. Adults who were sexually abused in childhood are at a higher risk for developing a variety of psychiatric disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and mood disorders. To understand the essential issues about traumatic memory, the human mind’s response to a traumatic event must first be understood. The memory is made up of many different sections with each having different consequences on one another. Can people remember what they were wearing three days ago? Most likely no, because the memory only holds on to what is actively remembered. What a person was wearing is not important so it is thrown out and forgotten. This type of unimportant information passes through the short-term memory. â€Å"Short-term memory is a system for storing information over brief intervals of time.† (Squire, 1987) It’s main characteristic is the holding and understanding of limited amounts of information. The system can grasp brief ideas which would otherwise slip into oblivion, hold them, relate them and understand them for its own purpose. (1987) Another aspect of STM was introduced by William James in 1890, under the name â€Å"primary memory† (Baddeley, 1993). Primary memory refers to the information that forms the focus of current attention and that occupies the stream of thought. â€Å"This information does not need to be brought back to mind in order to be used† (1993). Compared to short-term memory, primary memory Memory 4 places less emphasis on time and more emphasis on the parts of attention, processing, and holding. No matter what it is called, this system is used when someone hears a telephone number and remembers it long enough to write it down.

Affects of childhood trauma

Trauma as a child has developing effects, mentally and physically when growing Into an adult. BACKGROUND: The ma]orally of abused or neglected kids have a harder time building relationships with anybody who is trying to help them. It is proven kids without a healthy attachment are more prone to be vulnerable stress. We all know that stress can lead to a more severe lifestyle. Depression, anxiety and aggressive behavior are all medical problems following stress and traumatic trauma. Healthy development needs a healthy foundation. I am hoping to accomplish more education and a better understanding on this certain topic. With the online library, personal experience and the many other resources available, will be the biggest factor in the development of this research paper. There are a lot of opinion, facts and psychology papers written on this topic so it is going to be important to look for plagiarism. The more credible resources I look into the better the coherence and the less likely of committing plagiarism.The more aware we are of our behaviors and what our kids take from us, the better he understanding we have about their development. 1 . Some kids take a lot more from parents than others. 2. Some kids are more mentally traumatized to neglect than a lot of others are. 3. Some kids are born more emotionally sensitive than their siblings and friends. If you are an involved member of your community such as a minister, coach or school teacher you are going to deal with others personal situations. 1 .Understanding the mindfulness behind traumatic emotions the better educated and prepared you are for that certain situation. 2. The more educated you are on the behaviors that follow aromatic experiences the more of an open eye you will have for the situation. 3. Traumatized children are more likely to engage in high risk behaviors including, self- harm and aggression towards others. The education on human behavior and emotional intelligence gives us a better self-aw areness for ourselves and others. 1 . The more education we have on our emotions the better explanation we can give ourselves. 2.Self-awareness will give us a more open eye for the actions and behaviors we see in our kids and others. 3. Understanding the responsibility of our actions and how they have an influence on our kids, plays a major role in the way they perceive life. A lot of childhood trauma come from classmates and not the parents. 2. A lot of children are â€Å"spoiled† and act out because there is no discipline. 3. Some kids are just born that way and they will grow out of It â€Å"they are not depressed nor do they have anxiety† there Just kids and there are to many parent putting kids on medicine.Response to counter-arguments: 1. Yes correct, but if you are not aware of the change in your child's behavior because f what is going on in school, then you cannot correct the problem. 2. There are differences in behaviors when your child is not getting there w ay compared to you child going through a traumatic experience. 3. That's why educating yourself is so Important to understanding the differences. Already learned to live with the emotion and start to Just act out. Sometimes medication is what's needed, Just educate yourself on the medication and get different opinions.

Is it Right for the Government to Accept the Fine Now? Essay

The notion of free will is important when deciding whether the government should accept the fine now or later. Free will suggests that human beings are autonomous and are therefore free to decide how to live their lives. This includes decisions, such as John’s, about whether to speed drive or not. However, the governmental officials are human as well and therefore also possess free will. If John is considered a free agent capable of being free than it must also be assumed that government officials, also free agents, are also capable of being free. One caveat that accompanies free will is moral responsibility. Ultimately, this is what this entire case centers on. Is it right for the government to accept the fine before John commits a speed driving offense? This question will explored further as it relates to free will as well as how it relates to personal identity and mind body ideas. The government does not have the right to accept the fine prior to the speed driving offense. Whether or not it is known that John will speed drive tomorrow is not really the issue in this case. The issue is that the government should not accept that a person is going to commit a crime and accept a fine for it before it occurs but rather the government should rely on their sense of free will in order to stop the crime from happening in the first place. The capacity for the government to have free will also means that the government has a moral responsibility to society to ensure that John does not speed drive tomorrow. Further, if John is going to disappear forever after he speed drives anyway, is it really necessary to accept the fine and hope that this punishment deters John in the future? The mind body principle emphasizes that all human beings have a physical body as well as the capacity to think, feel and remember. This idea is connected to the idea of free will because human beings go beyond their biological characteristics to become creatures who want certain things, hate certain things and think about certain things in different ways. Therefore, there is a scientific reason that can explain why John may choose to speed tomorrow just as there is a scientific reason why the government may choose to accept the fine before the crime. Similarly, there are also internal reasons why these choices may be made that have more to do with feelings and thoughts than biological processes. This is the heart of Descartes famous phrase, â€Å"I think, therefore I am. † In other words, the way that human beings choose to operate and conduct themselves are direct results of the ability to think. This brings up a very important point with regards to punishing John for a future event. Perhaps John will use his mind to decide that his moral responsibility entails his decision to not speed after all. If John decides that his capacity for free will obligates him to refrain from speeding, then the government would be wrong in their acceptance of a fine before the crime was committed. Finally, philosophical behaviorists believe that human beings rely on their minds to behave in reaction to their physical environment. If this is the case, then John may still change his mind about speeding, but more likely John will go ahead and speed in response to the physical environment that accepted a fine for a future crime. In other words, John will go ahead and speed because he had already been punished for the crime so nothing was stopping him from doing it. Under personal identity theories, Thomas Reid suggests that just because human beings have the capacity to remember events does not mean that these events happened to them. Further, he suggests that if human beings cannot remember something that happened a week ago, does this mean they have become another person? This has direct relevance to this case because it can be assumed that if the government knows someone is planning to commit a crime they can get the punishment out of the way before the crime is even committed. This brings up a larger issue. Will punishing humans before they commit a crime truly deter them from that future crime or will it produce a drastic change in society based on the notion that if punishment has already been served then the crime is an accepted part of society? While it is certainly logical to conclude that punishing someone before the crime occurs may produce a safer society, it is also logical to conclude that this type of justice system will create a crime laden distrustful society. For example, if the government finds out that John will be speeding in order to find his next victim to murder they may lock him in prison before the crime can occur. This will, conceivably, produce a safer society. However, it will, at the same time, create a society where human beings accept criminal activity provided that punishment is handed down before the crime. Ultimately, the government has no right to punish John for a speeding offense that will occur tomorrow. Personal identity is important here because it provides an outlet for John to make a different decision and obey the posted speed limit after all. In the end, the government could hand down a fine for a future speeding offense, but would this truly deter any future crime? The most logical answer is no because without punishing the mind of the criminal, then the punishment ultimately means very little. The capacity to have free will means that John is unlikely to change his behavior even if he is punished. Further, just because John will disappear after he speeds does not mean he ceases to exist just because this government can no longer see him. John will continue to exist in another place and his mind will ensure him that if he pays his fine for speeding then that offense will be accepted and he will be welcome to speed whenever he wants to. According to the idea of free will, the government would be more successful if they were to teach John why he should not speed and provide him with compelling reasons to refrain from doing so. John’s internal human desire to please those in authority would win out thus being more effective in curbing the potential for speeding behavior. Finally, free will does not mean John is allowed to speed nor does it mean that the government can punish John before he speeds. It does mean that John is free to drive wherever and whenever he wants to but the government is free to punish him if he does not obey the rules of the road.